It’s not always obvious which of the multitude of species of bacteria riding around in us should be classified as germs and attacked, and which are essential workers that should be nurtured.

One that’s particularly hard to classify is H. pylori, which was the subject of the 2005 Nobel Prize for the discovery that it causes peptic ulcers. But more recent studies have connected it with benefits, including lowering the risk of esophageal cancer. In a paper published in Science Advances, researchers in Sweden described how the bacteria can inhibit the formation of amyloid deposits, which are found in the brains of individuals with Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.

Scientists are just beginning to understand the microbes that have been with us for millennia — the so-called microbiome, which is being drastically depleted as an unintended consequence of antibiotic use, dietary changes, and other aspects of modern life.

Until the start of the 20th century, we all carried H. pylori. Now, it’s headed for global extinction. But before it disappears, it’s worth understanding what it does and why we all once carried it.

While many doctors are happy to say good riddance to H. pylori — which also has been associated with stomach cancer — scientists are discovering more positive benefits, including a few studies that have shown it might also lower the risk of asthma and allergies and help protect against obesity and Type 2 diabetes. As I’ve written previously, this stomach bug is a feature of our biology, not just a problem that needs to be eliminated.

These newest findings on its effects related to amyloid deposits identified a protein called CagA — secreted by most strains of human H. pylori — as the key component. That doesn’t necessarily mean CagA protects us against Alzheimer’s; scientists don’t know whether amyloid deposits are a cause of the disease, a symptom, or an attempt by the body to slow its progression.

Still, researchers continue to study the protein, which may lead to new strategies for preventing the disease. The findings also add to a growing understanding of the connection between the microbiome and the risk of developing Alzheimer’s and other neurodegenerative diseases.

They also serve as a warning: we don’t know enough about the unintended consequences of eradicating H. pylori. Genetic comparisons suggest that the bacteria have been residing in the human stomach for at least 60,000 years, and likely much longer.

Biologist Martin Blaser of Rutgers University has been one of the most vocal advocates for understanding the pros and cons of H. pylori, which he describes in his 2014 book, Missing Microbes: How the Overuse of Antibiotics is Fueling Our Modern Plagues. He said every mammal has some stomach bacteria — a relative of our H. pylori.

He was particularly excited by the findings on CagA. It was his work that initially identified the protein and showed that the only so-called CagA-positive strains were more closely connected to all health risks and benefits, including ulcers and stomach cancers, as well as a decreased risk of asthma and esophageal cancer. He later collaborated on a study that suggested a connection between the CagA-positive strains and decreased risk of stroke. “The protein is a double-edged sword,” he said.

Biologist Gefei Chen of Uppsala University in Sweden, one of the amyloid study researchers, said the CagA protein prevents other bacteria from forming communities called biofilms. This ability gives H. pylori an edge over competitors by preventing would-be rivals from forming the biofilms they would need to colonize the stomach. The effect on our health may be either beneficial, detrimental, or a combination of both.

The biofilms are held together with a scaffolding that is similar to the deposits found in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients. Chen said he wanted to see if the protein from the bacteria could also affect amyloid deposits in the brain. He and his colleagues created deposits in the lab and exposed them to CagA. “It works so well, it’s so efficient … that’s a big surprise for us.”

He’s currently using gene editing to modify H. pylori to determine whether it can be altered to control its function in the body. CagA could also be used to break up bacterial biofilms, which, like walled cities for bacteria, can prevent antibiotics from reaching infections. Harmful biofilms can also coat medical devices, such as catheters, and they form the stubborn plaque on our teeth.

Blaser said H. pylori is quickly disappearing — even without our help. He anticipates there may come a time when we’ll attempt to regain it. Perhaps it will be an edited version that highlights the benefits of the bacteria without its downsides.

It was an oversimplification to consider that microbes are all either good or bad. Our microbes are evolving in ways that help them to survive and reproduce, which may benefit or harm us depending on our stage of life and other environmental factors. They might be good in one part of the body and one stage of life, but bad in another part at another stage. It’s not in their evolutionary interest to kill us, their hosts.

Perhaps someday doctors will be able to tip the balance toward the bacteria’s benefits — with probiotics, perhaps, or even with gene editing. However, our microbial diversity is half of what it was in pre-industrial societies, and it is declining rapidly. Scientists must act quickly to understand what these bugs do while we still have them.

F.D. Flam is a Bloomberg Opinion columnist covering science. She is host of the “Follow the Science” podcast.

As international attention turns away from missile strikes and toward diplomacy following the recent ceasefire between Iran and Israel, a deeper, longer-term struggle is quietly taking shape inside the Islamic Republic — one that will define the country’s political future.

For the first time in his 36 years in power, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has publicly acknowledged that he has identified potential successors. Though overshadowed by the immediate aftermath of military escalation, this statement marks the beginning of a pivotal and unprecedented transition in the Islamic Republic.

As a legal scholar specializing in constitutional law and authoritarian governance, I view this moment not merely as a political maneuver but as a test of the Islamic Republic’s institutional durability — and its long-standing contradictions.

In a development that received limited international attention, sources close to Iranian leadership revealed that Khamenei has identified a short list of potential successors. This was reported by Newsweek citing individuals familiar with the matter. While the Iranian constitution outlines a process for succession, even indirect confirmation of such planning is rare — and it underscores the regime’s growing concern about managing an eventual transition of power.

The timing is also telling. The ceasefire with Israel, though fragile, has temporarily halted external conflict and redirected public focus to internal vulnerabilities. Decades of repression, economic mismanagement and growing legitimacy crises have left the regime weakened at home. A leadership transition in this context carries not only political weight, but also the potential to spark deeper unrest or power fragmentation within Iran’s already-opaque ruling elite.

According to Article 111 of Iran’s constitution — originally adopted in 1979 and amended in 1989 — in the event of the supreme leader’s death, dismissal, incapacity or even resignation, a temporary council composed of the president, the head of the judiciary and a cleric from the Guardian Council is tasked with assuming the leader’s responsibilities until the Assembly of Experts appoints a successor.

On paper, this process appears straightforward. But in practice, the process is anything but transparent or democratic. While the constitution places the responsibility of selecting the next supreme leader on the Assembly of Experts, the body itself is far from independent. All candidates for the assembly are subject to strict vetting and must be approved by the Guardian Council — a body whose members are, in part, appointed directly or indirectly by the sitting supreme leader. This means that the individuals tasked with choosing the next leader have already passed through filters loyal to the current one.

In principle, the sitting supreme leader is not supposed to influence the selection of his successor. Yet, the entire system — from candidate approval to ideological alignment — operates within a tightly controlled structure, undermining the notion of a genuinely representative or independent process.

Moreover, the constitution does not specify any clear criteria for leadership selection beyond vague requirements such as “religious and political authority.” This ambiguity leaves the door wide open for factionalism, internal maneuvering and even military interference.

While the constitutional structure offers a legal facade of order, the true dynamics of power transition in Iran are likely to be shaped by unelected centers of influence: the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, Khamenei’s inner circle and the expansive bureaucracy of the supreme leader’s office. These entities have accumulated immense power over the past three decades, including control over economic assets, media, surveillance and foreign policy.

Their role in selecting the next leader — or ensuring that a compliant figure rises — will be decisive. This reality underscores a broader truth: In the Islamic Republic, legal texts often mask the informal mechanisms that truly govern political life.

The last leadership transition, from Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini to Khamenei in 1989, occurred under vastly different conditions. At the time, the regime had emerged from the Iran-Iraq war with revolutionary fervor intact, and Khamenei was elevated largely due to elite consensus and political loyalty, not religious stature.

Today, the legitimacy of the Islamic Republic is far more contested. The “Woman, Life, Freedom” movement of 2022, economic decline exacerbated by international sanctions, and public disillusionment with both reformists and hard-liners have created a volatile political environment. The succession process, even if tightly controlled, could act as a flashpoint for broader challenges to state authority.

Furthermore, the regional and international context has changed dramatically. Iran’s geopolitical position is more isolated, and its relationships with global powers are strained. Any signs of instability or elite fragmentation during succession will be closely watched by allies and adversaries alike.

If the regime seeks to manage succession solely through elite backroom deals and repression, it risks amplifying the very instability it hopes to avoid. Lack of transparency, exclusion of public voices and continued reliance on harsh punishments — such as the recent wave of expedited executions— will deepen mistrust and further erode what remains of the regime’s domestic legitimacy.

Conversely, a more inclusive and transparent process, while unlikely, could offer a rare opportunity to begin bridging the widening gap between the state and society.

The ceasefire between Iran and Israel may have quieted the skies, but inside Iran, the country now faces a deeper and more complex reckoning — not only over who will lead next and under what terms, but also over the government’s handling of the crisis and whether the supreme leader intends to change his position or respond to public demands for accountability.

For the first time in decades, the question of succession is no longer theoretical. The supreme leader, who had been hiding during the Israeli assault, is expected to re-emerge. Yet his silence during the war — and the damage sustained across Iran’s military and nuclear infrastructure — have raised new doubts about the regime’s preparedness and resilience.

Perhaps no statement captures the irony of the moment more than Khamenei’s own words: “Rest assured, there will be neither war nor negotiation.” And yet, there was war — and ultimately, there was negotiation. As he returns to the public eye, will he open the path for a successor to confront the crisis he leaves behind or continue to tighten the circle of power until the very end?

The path Khamenei chooses next may determine not only the future of Iran’s leadership — but also the fate of the Islamic Republic itself.

Pegah Banihashemi, a native of Iran, is a legal scholar and journalist in Chicago whose work focuses on human rights, constitutional and international law, and Middle East politics.

Staff writers with the St. Paul Pioneer Press were recognized with four awards at the annual Minnesota Society of Professional Journalists Page One Awards banquet, which was recently held at the Nicollet Island Inn in Minneapolis. The awards rely on judges from out-of-state chapters of the Society of Professional Journalists to review contest entries, in this case within the category of large newspapers.

Molly Guthrey won first place in business feature reporting for her story on home remodeler and cancer survivor Mary Haugh.

Frederick Melo and Mars King of the Pioneer Press received second place in business news reporting for a series of stories on Madison Equities putting its downtown St. Paul property portfolio on the market.

Vikings reporter Dane Mizutani received an honorable mention in “Best Beat Reporting” and sports editor Kevin Cusick won second place for headline submissions.

A full list of Page One Award winners is online at mnspj.org.

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After a few days golfing, go-karting, working out and meeting — but not skating — with players he hopes will be future Minnesota Wild teammates, forward prospect Ryder Ritchie is headed home to British Columbia and will soon figure out where he’s playing next season.

On a Medicine Hat team that finished second in the Memorial Cup, which crowns the champion of Canadian major junior hockey, Ritchie averaged better than a point a game. Amazingly, that was only good for third offensively for the Tigers, who were led by Gavin McKenna’s 129 points in 56 games — which is why McKenna is the early consensus for the first overall pick in the 2026 NHL entry draft.

Ritchie, picked in the second round by the Wild in 2024, spoke to reporters at the team’s annual Development Camp at TRIA Rink on Wednesday. He said despite reports that he has committed to Boston University, he is still working on a final decision.

“I’m still kind of looking at my options,” he said.

Ritchie, who turns 19 in August, said he has not set a deadline for a final decision on his 2025-26 hockey destination. He has spent the past three years in the Western Hockey League.

“I just haven’t made up my mind yet,” Ritchie said. “I think I’ve still got to kind of think things through and talk to my family.

Ritchie’s father, Byron, played more than 300 NHL games for a quartet of teams, and played pro hockey in Europe before retiring in 2017.

A year ago at this time, American college hockey would not have been an option for Ritchie, as players in Canadian major junior hockey were considered professionals by the NCAA and were therefore ineligible. But a lawsuit and a rules change handed down in November 2024 has opened college hockey to players in the three Canadian major junior leagues.

Before he started playing major junior for Prince Albert in 2022, Ritchie took a look at his college options, taking official visits to schools such as Michigan and Wisconsin. Since the 2024 ruling, that world is again an option on his road that he and the Wild hope will eventually land him in St. Paul.

“I tried not to think about it until after the year, because I was focusing on trying to win a championship, so I think that’s kind of why I’m still in the deciding factor right now, and trying to figure out what I want to do,” Ritchie said. “It’s obviously appealing. A lot of guys are leaving, so it’s going to be a tough decision.”

McKenna is reportedly weighing his college options, as well, considering an offer from Penn State, and visiting the Michigan State campus earlier this week to meet with the Spartans’ coaches.

The three-day Development Camp for the Wild took a different route in 2025, with just 15 players invited and no on-ice work. Instead the players did off-ice workouts, video study, seminars about nutrition and social media, and had fun away from the rink at a go-kart track, a golf course and an escape room.

Most agreed it was a fun break from the on-ice work that is usually a part of the summer get-together.

“Obviously, everyone likes to skate. That’s what we do. We’re hockey players,” said Wild prospect Riley Heidt, who played major junior last season for Prince George. “But it’s good to get in the gym and kind of focus on that stuff, too, especially earlier in the summer.”

Defenseman Theodor Hallquisth and forward Adam Benak, picked by the Wild in last weekend’s NHL Draft, were both camp participants, making their first visits to Minnesota.

More free agent moves

The Wild addressed some depth needs on Wednesday, signing a half-dozen free agents who likely to play the bulk of their time in Iowa. Among their moves:

– They inked a one-year entry-level contract for good-sized forward Bradley Marek, who played 50 games for the Iowa Wild last season, and is a former CCHA rookie of the year at Ferris State.

– Goalie depth was handled with the addition of Cal Petersen, an Iowa native who starred at Notre Dame a decade ago and has played in more than 100 NHL games for the Kings and Flyers. He signed a one-year contract.

– Forward Nicolas Aube-Kubel signed a one-year contract after the Albertan played 22 games for the Sabres and Rangers last season. He has more than 300 NHL games on his resume.

– Ben Gleason signed a one-year contract following 36 games in the AHL last season in the Edmonton and Philadelphia systems. His only NHL experience is four games with Dallas in 2018-19.

– Defenseman Matt Kierstad, who is originally from Elk River and played collegiately at North Dakota, signed with the Wild for two years after spending last season in the AHL with the Charlotte Checkers. He has played in 39 career NHL games with the Florida Panthers.

– Veteran forward Tyler Pitlick, who played prep hockey at Centennial and a season at Minnesota State, Mankato, signed a two-year contract with the Wild. He has logged more than 400 games for eight different NHL teams over the past dozen seasons.

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